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Country's official name
At the beginning of the Bronze Age, the Viet tribe groups
had settled down in the North and in the north of Central
Vietnam. There were about 15 groups of Lac Viet tribesmen living
mainly in the northern highland and delta and a dozen Au Viet
groups of tribesmen living in Viet Bac, the northern region of
old Vietnam.
Van Lang (2876 BC – 258 BC)
At that time, the two ethnic tribes of the Lac Viet and Au
Viet lived together in many areas with other inhabitants. Due to
the increasing need to control floods, fight against invaders,
and exchange culture and economy, these tribes living near each
other tended to gather together and integrate into a larger
mixed group. Among these Lac Viet tribes was the Van Lang, which
was the most powerful tribe. The leader of this tribe joined all
the Lac Viet tribes together to found Van Lang Nation,
addressing himself as King Hung. The next generations followed
in their father’s footsteps and kept this appellation. Based on
historical documents, researchers correlatively delineated the
location of Van Lang Nation to the present day regions of North
and north of Central Vietnam, as well as the south of
present-day Kwangsi (China). The Van Lang Nation approximately
lasted from the beginning of the first millennium B.C. to the
3rd century B.C.
Au Lac (257 BC – 207 BC)
In 221 BC, Qin Shihuangdi (Tan Thuy Hoang), King of Qin (China),
invaded the land of the Viet tribes. Thuc Phan, the leader of
the alliance of Au-Viet tribes was respected as the chief of the
resistance war against the Tan enemy that later, in 208 BC, was
forced to withdraw. With his imposing power, Thuc Phan nominated
himself as King An Duong Vuong and founded Au Lac Nation with
groups of Lac Viet and Au Viet tribes. In 207 BC, Trieu Da, King
of Nam Viet (China), invaded Au Lac country. The resistance of
An Duong Vuong failed soon after this invasion. As a result, the
northern feudalist took turns dominating the country over the
next seven centuries, establishing their harsh regime in the
country and dividing the country into administrative regions and
districts with unfamiliar names. However, the country’s name of
Au Lac could not be erased from the people’s minds in their
everyday life.
Van Xuan (544-602)
In the spring of 542, Ly Bi rose up in arms and swept away the
Chinese administration, liberating the territory. He declared
himself King of Van Xuan Kingdom in February 544, acknowledging
the national superiority complex of the independent spirits to
live in eternal peace. However, the existence of Ly Bi’s
administration was very brief. He was defeated by the Chinese
imperial army, and the country returned to feudal Chinese
domination again in 602. The name Van Xuan was restored only
after the victory over the Han army at the Bach Dang River led
by General Ngo Quyen in 938. This victory marked the end of the
Chinese domination period in Vietnam.
Dai Co Viet (968 – 1054)
In 968, Dinh Bo Linh defeated the twelve lords and unified the
country. He declared himself King and named the country Dai Co
Viet. This name remained throughout the Dinh Dynasty (968-980),
Pre-Le Dynasty (980-1009) and the beginning of Ly Dynasty
(1010-1225).
Dai Viet (1054 – 1802)
In 1054, a flaming bright star appeared in the sky for many
days, which was considered a good omen. As a result, the King Ly
changed the name of the country to Dai Viet. This name remained
until the end of Tran Dynasty (1126 - 1400). The name Dai Viet
remained under the Le Dynasty (1428-1788) and the Tay Son
Dynasty (1788-1802).
Dai Ngu (1400 – 1406)
In March 1400, Ho Quy Ly usurped the throne of King Tran Thieu
De, founded the Ho Dynasty and changed the country’s name to Dai
Ngu, meaning peace in the ancient language. This name only
lasted for very short time, until April 1407, when the Ming
enemy invaded Dai Ngu and defeated the Ho Dynasty (1400- 1407).
After 10 years of resistance against the Ming occupation
(1418-1427), Le Loi had achieved a victorious triumph. In 1428,
Le Loi declared himself King of Le Dynasty and changed the name
of the country back to Dai Viet. At this time, the territory of
Vietnam had expanded to the region of present-day Hue.
Viet Nam
In 1802, Nguyen Anh claimed his coronation to become the
first King Nguyen, starting the Nguyen dynasty and changing the
country’s name to Viet Nam. This name was officially recognized
in many diplomatic missions in 1804. However, the words "Viet
Nam" had already appeared very early in history. In the 14th
century, there was a book of code entitled "Viet Nam the Chi",
edited by Doctor Ho Tong Thoc. In the book by scholar Nguyen
Trai entitled "Du Dia Chi" at the beginning of 15th century; the
words "Viet Nam" were repeated several times.
Doctor Trinh Nguyen Binh Khiem
(1491-1585) had written on the first page of his work "Trinh
Tien Sinh Quoc Ngu" the following: "... Viet Nam have
constructed its foundation..." The words "Viet Nam" were also
found in some carved stelae of the 16th - 17th century in Bao
Lam Pagoda, Haiphong (1558), in Cam Lo Pagoda, Ha Tay (1590), in
Phuc Thanh Pagoda, Bac Ninh (1664), etc.
In particular, in the first
sentence on the stele Thuy Mon Dinh (1670) at the landmark on
the border at Lang Son, it was written: "This is the gateway of
Viet Nam that guards the northern frontiers..." In terms of
meaning, there are many theories that prove the words "Viet Nam"
are created by combining two racial and geographic elements,
which is understood as "Viet people from the south". During the
reign of King Minh Mang (1820-1840), the name of the country was
changed to Dai Nam, but Viet Nam was still widely used in many
literary works, civil business affairs, and social relations.
Following the triumph of the August Revolution on August 19th
1945, which had entirely swept away Vietnamese feudal and French
colonial oppression and began a new era in the country,
President Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the nation’s independence and
the national name Democratic Republic of Vietnam was born on
September 2nd 1945. Although Vietnam suffered from war and
separation in the following 30 years, the sacred words "Viet
Nam" were very popularly used from the North to the South, and
were deeply imprinted in the hearts of the Vietnamese people.
Following the liberation of Southern Vietnam on April 30 1975,
the entire country of Vietnam was completely unified. In the
first meeting of the National Assembly of the Unified Vietnam on
July 2nd 1976, the assembly decided to name the country The
Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The constitution of 1980, and
1992, continued its affirmation of the country’s official name,
legally and actually.
Prehistoric Era
Prehistoric Era of Vietnam include: Pre-Paleolithic Age,
Neolithic Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
Pre-Paleolithic Age
Human civilization started in Vietnam a very long time ago. In
fact, archaeologists have found vestiges of Homo Erectus in the
caves of Lang Son and Nghe An Provinces. During the
Pre-Paleolithic Age, also known as the Son Vi Era (between
10,000 to 23,000 years ago), the population of Vietnam was
rather large and widespread.
Neolithic Age
During this period, groups of people with different cultural
attributes mixed together. The people used sophisticated trimmed
stone axes, produced stone rings, and designed pottery goods.
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age society produced bronze tools, weapons, and
jewelry. They harvested crops and raised several kinds of
domestic animals, such as buffalo, oxen, and pigs. Three
different cultural groups existed during this period. The
Pre-Dong Son lived in the Ma River, the Ca River and the Red
River Delta areas, the Pre-Sa Huynh inhabited the southern areas
of central Vietnam, and the third group inhabited the Dong Nai
River Delta. The Pre-Dong Son society existed at the same time
as the early Hung Vuong Dynasty.
Iron Age
The various subgroups of the Pre-Dong Son culture in the
northern areas of Central Vietnam eventually absorbed together
to form the Dong Son culture, this group of people existed in
the Early Iron Age, as they produced several kinds of iron
tools. This unique culture was characterized by sophisticated
products, which included beautifully designed bronze drums.
Foundation of the Nation
Van Lang Nation
During the Dong Son period, only one state had formed. The
unified culture prevailing in this region stretched from the
Sino-Vietnamese border to the northern banks of the Gianh River.
The nation of the ancient Viet people existed as the Van Lang
Nation, which was ruled by the Kings Hung.
Au Lac Nation
A few centuries later, An Duong Vuong founded the Au Lac
Nation in the third century BC. Records of this nation can be
found in the annals written by the Chinese historian, Xi Ma Tin.
Remains of the Co Loa Citadel, which was built during the An
Duong Vuong period, can still be seen today.
Champa Nation
The Pre-Sa Huynh culture evolved in South Central Vietnam
during the Iron Age. The people of this group lived between Thua
Thien and the Dong Nai River Delta. At that time, people were
buried in tombs which contained many tools made of iron and
jewelry made of agate and jasper.. The Sa Huynh culture was
founded by the ancestors of the Cham who founded the Champa
Kingdom.
Chinese domination period (1st century, BC - 10th century,
AD)
In the 3rd century BC, the Han people who lived in the Yellow
River basin unified China, merging the various ethnic groups who
lived in southern China to the south of the Yangtze River into a
centralized empire. This feudal empire soon spread southwards.
In 111 B.C. the Han dynasty sent an expeditionary corps to
conquer the kingdom of Nam Viet established by Chao To, who had
brought the kingdom of Au Lac and several territories in
southern China together under his rule. The Han integrated Au
Lac into their empire, creating the commandery of Chiao Chih,
which was divided into provinces and districts. The three
provinces, which constituted present-day northern Vietnam to the
18th parallel, had a population of 981,375 people according to
Han documents.
From this time on, the history of
Vietnam evolved under the combined influence of two
contradictory factors. On the one hand, there was a policy of'
economic exploitation and cultural assimilation, and on the
other, there was a steadfast popular resistance marked by armed
insurrection against foreign domination. A final resistance led
to the preservation of the identity of the Vietnamese people
after many centuries, the emergence of a national consciousness,
and the establishment of the independent state of Vietnam. While
keeping its unique character, the nation's culture also adopted
quite a few elements of Chinese culture. Ten centuries of
domination resulted in a thorough transformation of Vietnamese
society.
The Imperial Policy of the Han
At first, for their own benefit, the Han retained the system of
lac hau and lac tuong, the civilian and military chiefs of the
early communities; little by little, they replaced them with
functionaries appointed by the court who administered the
country down to province and district levels (there were three
provinces and 56 districts). A mandarin, protected by an armed
entourage, presided over each district. The rural communes,
which contained most of the population, escaped their direct
rule so that this administration very slowly expanded its
network throughout the country while coping with a stubborn
popular resistance. The imperial functionaries came from China,
accompanied by an entourage of scribes, agents and family
members. Many of them settled in the country permanently
The population had to make a double contribution: a tribute to
the imperial court and taxes, duties and corvee to maintain the
administration and military apparatus. The tribute paid to the
court mostly comprised valuable tropical products such as ivory,
mother-of-pearl, pearls and sandalwood which Chinese documents
of the time described as abundant and varied products from the
southern territories. Tropical fruit, various handicraft items,
fabric, gold or silver engravings, and mother-of-pearl inlay
work were also required. A certain number of craftsmen were
exiled to work for the court while part of the population was
compelled to hunt for elephant and rhinoceros in forests or dive
into the sea to gather pearls or coral.
Each inhabitant had to pay a head-tax and a land tax on each
plot; the population was also forced to supply corvee labourers
to dig canals and build roads and citadels. Chinese documents
describe many revolts due to this systematic exploitation and
extortion by imperial functionaries.
At the same time, the feudal Han carried out a policy of
systematic cultural assimilation, the empire having to be
unified in all aspects. The first concern was to impose
veneration of the emperor, Son of Heaven; use of the
indeographic script was enforced as a vehicle for the official
doctrine, Confucianism. At the centre of human obligation was
absolute loyalty to the monarch, who ruled not only human
society but also the kingdom of the gods. A tightly-woven
network of obligations and rites bound societal and individual
life, strictly governing relationships between parents and
children, husbands and wives, between friends, and between
subjects and the imperial administration which tried to replace
old customs with laws and rites inspired by Confucian doctrine.
Socio - economic transformation
Economic exploitation by the occupiers hampered the development
of productive forces but could not check them. Excavation of
tombs dating from the 1st to the 6th centuries has revealed the
progressive diffusion of iron tools, production implements and
weapons already known in the previous era. Iron cauldrons, nails
and tripods appeared while objects in bronze became less common,
although the making of bronze drums continued for centuries.
In the 1st century, furrowing with iron ploughshares on
wingploughs drawn by oxen or water buffaloes gradually replaced
cultivation in burned out clearings. In particular, hydraulic
works, canals and dykes ensured control over water; the use of
fertilizer facilitated intensive farming, the practice of
growing two crops a year on well-irrigated fields for example.
The growing of tubers such as sweet potato, sugarcane and
mulberry was already known, as well as various vegetables and
fruit trees. Mulberry growing and silkworm raising took pride of
place; there was also betel, areca-nut trees, medicinal plants,
bamboo and rattan, which supplied raw materials for basket
making. From the earliest centuries, there was thus a
diversified agriculture which, gradually improved, would last
for a very long time.
Handicrafts also reached a relatively high level. Many tools of
iron and bronze were forged; ceramics with enamel coating was
added to the already flourishing pottery of the previous era.
The remains of citadels, pagodas and tombs showed that brick and
tile making was thriving, some of which were also coated with a
layer of enamel.
The most prosperous handicraft occupations were weaving and
basket-making. Fabrics in cotton and silk and baskets of bamboo
and rattan were sought after items. In the 3rd century, paper
began to be made using techniques imported from China.
Glass-making techniques also came to Vietnam from China and
India. To meet the need for luxury goods for the court and local
functionaries, the making of objects in engraved gold and silver
underwent new development, the quality of which improved through
the use of Chinese techniques. Lacquer was already known. It
could be said that Vietnamese handicrafts established themselves
during this period.
If the economy as a whole remained autarkic, certain products
supplied markets in administrative centres such as Long Bien (in
present-day Hanoi Capital) which had trading quarters. River and
sea transport was carried out using sampans or junks, some of
which had barges and several score oarsmen. The Red River and
the road running along it led to Yunnan and Sichuan, and hence
to Central Asia as well as Burma. Communication with China was
achieved by both sea and land, the road being dotted with many
relays. Chiao Chih served as a port of call for junks from Java,
Burma, Iran, India and even the Roman empire on their way to
China. In large centres, there were a number of foreign
residents such as Khmers and Indians. The vessels carried local
products, valuable timbers, ivory and handicrafts, and also took
part in the slave trade. This external trade was entirely
monopolized by the occupiers.
The Han policy of cultural assimilation benefited from the
prestige of Chinese civilization,, which was then at a high
level, but it was confronted with a stubborn resistance. The
Vietnamese language was largely borrowed from Chinese, but the
words had been Vietnamized to become part and parcel of the
language which was progressively enriched without losing its
identity; popular literature kept its vigour while beginning to
develop a learned literature written in Han (classical Chinese).
Despite Confucian rites and precepts, many local traditions
continued the veneration of founding fathers or patriots,
participation by women in patriotic activities, and the making
and use of bronze drums during great ceremonies. Relics found in
the tombs of that era show stronger Han civilization influence;
the indigenous upper classes came under greater foreign
influence than the population at large or rural communities.
However, Dong Son art was still clearly seen with its
decorations and statuettes.
Together with Confucianism, Buddhist and Taoist doctrine also
made their way into Chiao Chih. Buddhism, coming from India by
sea and from China by land, was conspicuous from the 2nd and 6th
centuries, with the town of Luy Lau (in present-day Bac Ninh
Province) having 20 towers, 500 bonzes and 15 already-translated
sutras. Taoism integrated itself with local beliefs, giving rise
to magical, medical and ascetic practices. The main
characteristic of these religions was that they did not
encourage fanaticism nor exclude one another, thus helping to
preserve unity within the national community.
Following the conquest by the Han, Vietnamese society gradually
turned into a feudal society. De jure, land belonged entirely to
the emperor, while all members of the population became his
subjects, bound to pay taxes, corvee and other duties.
Nevertheless, the communes stayed more or less autonomous.
To ensure domination, the Han
feudalists advocated the creation of "military colonies";
military men, political or common-law prisoners and destitute
people coming from China together with destitute Vietnamese and
landless peasants were recruited to reclaim and exploit the land
under the direction of officers or functionaries. At the same
time, private domains were created by Chinese functionaries
settled for good in the country or indigenes loyal to the
administration (members of the former ruling classes or notables
from rural communities).
After the 2nd century, a certain
number of Vietnamese who had received a good education had
access to mandarin posts and, hence, could set up private
domains. Slaves worked in these military colonies and domains.
The tombs of that era often reveal models in baked earth of
domains with outer areas dotted with watchtowers, houses,
granaries and stables. As time went by, the Chinese
functionaries and their descendants living in the country became
"Vietnamized". With indigenous functionaries and landowners,
they constituted an indigenous ruling class with feudal
characteristics.
Shaped in a country subject to the harsh domination of the Han
imperialists, this feudal class was opposed in some aspects to
the court and sided with the population. Internal disturbances
in China, caused mostly by peasant revolts, created favourable
conditions for an open struggle against Chinese imperialist
domination for secession - first temporary, then definitive.
Insurrections and the struggle for independence
The grim resistance by the population against Chinese
imperialist domination, which persisted century after century,
time and again, broke out in the form of armed insurrection.
The most important was that of the two sisters, Trung Trac and
Trung Nhi, born of a family of military chiefs in the district
of Me Linh (northwest of Hanoi). Between 40 and 43 A.D the Trung
sisters launched a vast movement throughout Chiao Chih led by
women in many places. Trung Trac was made "Queen" and Chinese
imperialist domination was overthrown. The Han emperor, then at
the peak of his power, had to send his best general, Ma Yuan
"Tamer of Waters"to Chiao Chih. By the end of the year 43 A.D.,
the insurrection was crushed, but it left an indelible imprint
on the history of the country.
However, Chinese annals kept deploring that "the people of Chiao
Chih, relying on remote inaccessible areas, liked to rebel". The
insurrection in the Red River valley spread to the south;
military posts and the domains of imperial functionaries were
attacked. Another young woman, Lady Trieu, launched a
large-scale movement against foreign domination in 248 A.D. in
the province of Chiu Chen (present-day Thanh Hoa Province). She
said, "I'd like to ride storms, kill the sharks in the open sea,
drive out the aggressors, reconquer the country, undo the tics
of serfdom, and never bend my back to be the concubine of any
man". Riding an elephant, she led the way to the battlefield.
However, she was unable to maintain a very long resistance
against the Chinese Imperial army.
Other insurrections marked the 4th and 5th centuries, including
one in the year 412 when Chinese peasants who had risen in
revolt and been driven out of China co-ordinated their efforts
with Vietnamese patriots. The 6th century was marked by a major
insurrection led by Li Bi, a notable from Long Hung in
present-day Thai Binh Province, who launched his movement in
542, swept away the Chinese administration, and defeated a
counter-offensive by the imperial army in 543 and an attack by
the Cham in the south. In 544 Ly Bi made himself King of Van
Xuan kingdom and established a national administration.
However, he was defeated by the
Chinese imperial army in 545-546 and died in 548, handing over
command to one of his aides, Trieu Quang Phuc. The latter
mustered his troops in the swampy areas of Da Trach (in
present-day Hung Yen Province), carrying out guerrilla raids and
making himself king after Ly Bi's death. In 550, availing
himself of internal disturbances in China, he reconquered a
sizable part of the nation's territory. However, the Vietnamese
feudalists did not get on together and the last decades of the
6th century were marked by their rivalry, which enabled China's
Sui dynasty to reconquer the country in 603.
The Sui dynasty moved the administrative capital to Tong Binh
(present-day Hanoi). In 618, the Tang dynasty took power in
China; China's economy and culture saw unprecedented development
as the empire experienced its greatest ever expansion. For the
Tang dynasty, Chiao Chih (Vietnam) was not only a colony for
exploitation, but also a starting point for expansion into
Southeast Asia. In 679, they instituted the "Protectorate of
Annam (Pacified South)"; the term then came to be used for tile
country itself.
The Tang dynasty extended their
administrative network to cover villages and mountainous
regions; the annual tribute to the Court and the various taxes,
cover and duties were increased. However agriculture and
handicrafts in particular, continued to develop, as well as
land, river and maritime communications. The three doctrines
-Confucianism, Taoism, and notably Buddhism - spread nationwide,
without doing away with local beliefs. The veneration of local
genies, often patriots or founders of villages, remained
widespread. In order to stifle deep-rooted national sentiment,
the Chinese imperialists used geomancy in an attempt to drain
the "veins of the dragon" running through Vietnamese soi
resulting in resistance from the people. In society, more and
more of those obtaining high positions in the administration
through education or bribery were those who obtained important
domains.
Under the Tang dynasty the country faced several invasions from
the south - Champa, Java, and Malaya and from the kingdom of Nan
Chiao (present-day Yunnan). In 863, Nan Chiao troops reached the
capital Tong Binh and destroyed it. The Tang Court had to send
General Gao Pian to fight against the Nan Chiao. Becoming
governor after defeating the Nan Chiao, Gao Pian tried to
suppress the nationalist movement which had continued to develop
after the Tang dynasty took power.
Many insurrections took place under the Tang dynasty, including
that of Ly Tu Tien and Dinh Kien in 687, of Mai Thuc Loan in
722, of Phung Hung in 766-791, and Duong Thanh in 819-820. By
the end of the 9th century, internal disturbances, particularly
the insurrection of Hwang Chao (874-883) in China, shook the
Tang reign and China entered a long period of anarchy that
started at the beginning of the 10th century. In 905, the last
governor sent by the Chinese imperial court to Vietnam died.
Taking advantage of the disturbances in China, a notable from
Cuc Bo (in the present-day province of Hai Duong), Khuc Thua Du,
made himself governor, and in 906 the Tang court had to
recognize this fait accompli. Khuc Thua Du's son, Khuc Hao,
tried to set up a national administration; in 930 the Southern
Ban dynasty, which had taken power in southern China, again
invaded the country. In 931, however, a patriot, Duong Dinh Nghe,
took up the fight and made himself governor. After Duong Dinh
Nghe died, murdered by one of his aides, the fight was led by
Ngo Quyen, who in 938 clashed with a Southern Han expeditionary
corps approaching by sea.
The Southern Han fleet entered
Vietnam via the Bach Dang estuary (mouth of the river which
flows into Halong Bay) where iron-tipped stakes had been sunk
into the riverbed by Ngo Quyen. At high-tide a Vietnamese
flotilla attacked the enemy then, pretending to escape, lured
the Southern Han boats into the estuary beyond the stakes still
covered by the tide. At low-tide, the entire Vietnamese fleet
counter-attacked, forcing the enemy to flee and sink, impaled on
the barrage of stakes.
The Bach Dang victory in 938 put an end to the period of Chinese
imperial domination. In 939 Ngo Quyen proclaimed himself king,
established his capital at Co Loa (previously a capital in the
3rd century B.C.) and set up a centralized government. It was
the first truly independent Vietnamese state.
Domestically, the main obstacle to the founding of a centralized
power structure capable of assuming direction of the economy -
management of the dyke system in particular - and of
successfully resisting foreign aggression was the existence of
feudal lords who each ruled an area of territory. On the death
of Ngo Quyen in 944, 12 warlords divided the country among
themselves and began to fight one another.
Starting from Hoa Lu in present-day Ninh Binh, Dinh Bo Linh
defeated them all, one after another, and unified the country in
967. The next year he made himself king, named the country Dai
Co Viet, established his capital at Hoa Lu, reorganized the army
and administration, and appointed renowned Buddhist monks as
advisers. The murder of Dinh Bo Linh in 979 brought a
six-year-old child to the throne. Meanwhile the Sung dynasty had
taken power in China where order was restored. A Sung
expeditionary corps was sent to reconquer Vietnam, which was
also being attacked from the south by the Cham.
To deal with this danger, the
Court and army appointed a talented general, Le Hoan. The latter
defeated the Sung army on both land and water, thus saving the
country (981). The next year, and expedition led by Le Hoan
invaded the Kingdom of Champa and conquered its capital
Indrapura (now in Quang Nam province), removing the threat of
invasion from the south for a long time to come.
Ngo Dynasty (939 - 965)
Ngo King (939-944)
Later Ngo King (950-965)
In 931, a patriot, Duong Dinh Nghe, took up the fight and made
himself governor. After Duong Dinh Nghe died, murdered by one of
his aides, the fight was led by Ngo Quyen, who in 938 clashed
with a Southern Han expeditionary corps approaching by sea. The
Southern Han fleet entered Vietnam via the Bach Dang estuary
(mouth of the river which flows into Halong Bay) where
iron-tipped stakes had been sunk into the riverbed by Ngo Quyen.
At high-tide a Vietnamese flotilla attacked the enemy then,
pretending to escape, lured the Southern Han boats into the
estuary beyond the stakes still covered by the tide. At
low-tide, the entire Vietnamese fleet counter-attacked, forcing
the enemy to flee and sink, impaled on the barrage of stakes.
Ngo Quyen imperial tomb
The Bach Dang victory in 938 put an end to the period of Chinese
imperial domination. In 939 Ngo Quyen proclaimed himself king,
established his capital at Co Loa (previously a capital in the
3rd century B.C.) and set up a centralized government. It was
the first truly independent Vietnamese state.
Domestically, the main obstacle to the founding of a centralized
power structure capable of assuming direction of the economy -
management of the dyke system in particular - and of
successfully resisting foreign aggression was the existence of
feudal lords who each ruled an area of territory. On the death
of Ngo Quyen in 944, 12 warlords divided the country among
themselves and began to fight one another.
Pre-Le Dynasty (980-1009)
Le Dai Hanh (980-1005)
Dynastic title:
-
Thien Phuc (980-988);
-
Hung Thong (989-993);
-
Ung Thien (994-1005)
-
Le Trung Tong (1005)
-
Le Long Dinh (1005-1009)
To deal with the danger of Sung
troops, the Court and army appointed a talented general, Le Hoan.
The latter defeated the Sung army on both land and water, thus
saving the country (981). The next year, and expedition led by
Le Hoan invaded the Kingdom of Champa and conquered its capital
Indrapura (now in Quang Nam Province), removing the threat of
invasion from the south for a long time to come.
Ly Dynasty (1010-1225)
Kings of Ly Dynasty:
After a long period of subjugation
by the Chinese feudal empire, a period marked by numerous
insurrections, the Vietnamese people finally won back their
independence in the 10th century. Following the recovery of that
independence, the country gradually turned towards creating a
centralized monarchical state. This centralization was made
necessary by twin factors: the construction of great hydraulic
works, particularly dykes and canals for the development of
agriculture, and the safeguarding of national independence
against attempts at reconquest by the Chinese imperial Court.
However, before a well organized monarchical state could be set
up, the country went through a period of instability during
which tendencies towards feudal domination still persisted. It
was only with the establishment of the Ly dynasty in 1009 that
the monarchy was able to gain a secure hold on power.
In 1010, after his accession to the throne, Ly Cong Uan, whose
royal name was Ly Thai To, ordered the transfer of the capital
to Thang Long, the site of present-day Hanoi. Thang Long was to
remain the capital until the 19th century. Ly Thai To decreed a
general amnesty for prisoners and the destruction of all
instruments of torture. In 1054, his successor, Ly Thanh Ton,
renamed the country Dai Viet
The king owned all the land by right. The state, however,
directly utilized only a small portion of this land, some of
which was distributed to members of the royal family and
high-ranking dignitaries as fiefdoms and personal domains. Taxes
were levied on land owned by villages and individuals. There was
thus an agrarian regime with several sectors:
- Land used by the state;
- Fiefdoms and domains;
- Communal land; and
- Private land.
There were two categories of land distributed to nobles and
high-ranking dignitaries. There were fiefdoms whose
beneficiaries had both the land and people at their disposal;
the peasants had obligations only to their local lord, and were
not required to pay taxes or provide labour to the state. In the
great domains, the peasants paid rent and taxes to the owner and
at the same time had obligations to the state, and remained
directly subject to the monarchy. Marshal Ly Thuong Kiet, for
instance, received in appanage 4,000 peasant households, but his
domain comprised another 10,000 households. Appanages and
domains remained the property of the king. When a lord died, his
heirs could inherit his land but could also be dispossessed by
the king.
Kings Ly attached great importance to agriculture. At the
beginning of each year, continuing a tradition inaugurated by Le
Hoan, the king himself made a symbolic gesture by ploughing a
plot of land, following a ceremony in honour of the god of
agriculture. In 1038, when King Ly Thai Ton was advised by a
mandarin not to demean himself through such an action, he said:
"If I myself do not do some ploughing as an offering to the god,
how can I set an example for the entire people.
Those who stole or killed buffaloes were severely punished under
the law.
The dykes were given particular attention and mandarins were
held responsible for their maintenance. The construction of
numerous dykes and other hydraulic works is recorded in the
annals, for instance the Co Xa dyke in 1108, and the digging of
the Dau Nai canal in 1029, the Lam Canal in 1050, and the Lanh
Kinh Canal in 1089.
From the beginning of their reign, the Ly endeavoured to
consolidate the state apparatus. The country was divided into 24
provinces entrusted to close relations of the royal family. The
centralized monarchy governed with the assistance of this
aristocracy. Princes of the blood had their personal appanages
and their own armed forces. The court hierarchy was a strict one
with a twin body of civil and military mandarins. These
mandarins received no salaries and lived on the money from rent
and taxes paid by the population under their administration. But
a mandarin bureaucracy gradually came into being, paid by the
monarchy through taxes on landholdings, handicrafts, forest
products, and market sales. Little by little, the administration
lost its family-based character.
Bonzes played an important role as advisers to the king. The
founder of the Ly dynasty was put on the throne with the help of
a prominent bonze superior, Van Hanh. The bonze Vien Thong
received honours reserved for the heir to the throne.
The Ly also introduced written laws. In 1042, King Ly Thai Tong
ordered his mandarins to "amend the laws and regulation so as to
adapt them to the present circumstances, to classify them, to
compile them into a penal code that can be easily understood by
all". It is reported in the annals that the code, when completed
and made known to the population, was welcomed by all. The
rehabilitation of delinquents and criminals was instituted; very
severe punishment was decreed for the "ten capital crimes",
particularly that of rebellion. Under the Ly, it was forbidden
to sell 18-year-olds as slaves; there were laws for the
protection of draught animals and on the mortgaging of land.
Penalties were prescribed against piracy and extortion by
mandarins.
This legislation was perfected by
the Tran. It should be noted that the law paid special attention
to the prevention of rebellion. While the delta had a
homogeneous Viet (or kinh) population, the mountainous regions
were inhabited by numerous ethnic groups, and the relationship
between the central government and these mountain populations
constituted a particularly difficult issue for the monarchy. The
historical relationship between the Viet majority and minority
groups was one of both integration and antagonism. On the one
hand, the delta and highlands were integrated economically and
needed each other; they were also closely bound by the need for
mutual defence against foreign aggressors. The different groups
were therefore moving towards progressively uniting as a single
nation. On the other hand, the Viet feudalists, particularly the
monarchy and mandarins, sought to exploit and oppress the
minorities, leading to frequent revolts and the ensuing
reprisals.
In the 11th century, when the Ly dynasty was founded, the
frontiers of Dai Viet in the north and northwest had not yet
been clearly delimited. Particularly important was the frontier
with China in the north and northeast; these regions were
inhabited by Tay and Nung people whose allegiance was of prime
importance for the Dai Viet kingdom. It was vital to incorporate
them into the nation.
The Ly king often sought alliances with local chiefs by giving
them princesses in marriage or by marrying their daughters.
At the Chinese court, there still existed a faction which
advocated the reconquest of Dai Viet. In 1069, in an attempt to
find the remedy to a serious economic and social crisis, the
Sung emperor gave full powers to a bold reformer named Wang
Nganche. When the reforms proved a disappointment, Wang Nganche,
to save the Sung's prestige and seize Dai Viet's wealth, decided
to send a great expedition against the Ly. In 1074, the
provinces of southern China received the order to strengthen
their armies, arm combat junks, and stop trading with Dai Viet.
At the Ly court, given that the reigning king was only ten years
old, all power was concentrated in the hands of General Ly
Thuong Kiet, who decided to take the offensive in order to
forestall the Sung.
Two army corps totalling 100,000 men were sent to China in 1075,
one overland under the command of Tong Dan, a Nung chief, the
other by sea, under the command of Ly Thuong Kiet himself. The
latter cleverly exploited the discontent of the Chinese
population with Wang Nganche's reforms, and appeared as the
liberator of the peoples of southern China. Placards were put up
denouncing the reformer and proclaiming that Ly Thuong Kiet's
only desire was to ensure the welfare of the people. The Ly
troops were enthusiastically welcomed by the population and
easily occupied many localities. The general attacked the Yung
chow stronghold which fell after a siege lasting 43 days on
March 1, 1076. The citadel was razed to the ground; other
strongholds suffered the same fate.
The Sung prepared for a counter-offensive by forming a coalition
with the Champa and the Khmer kingdom. In April 1076, having
attained his objective to destroy the Chinese staging posts, Ly
Thuong Kiet withdrew his troops from Chinese territory. Early in
1077, the Sung troops, having forced their way through the
frontier passes, were facing the Ly army across the Nhu Nguyet
River (now the Cau). Fierce fighting ensued and the Sung army
was unable to cross the river. It was in the-course of this
battle that Ly Thuong Kiet composed a poem and had it recited
during the night, making his men believe that the river god was
speaking:
Over the southern mountains and rivers, the Emperor of the South
shall reign
This was written down in the Book of Heaven.
How dare those barbarians invade our soil?
They will surely meet with defeat.
Its morale higher than ever, the Ly army repelled the attackers,
who were also being decimated by disease. Ly Thuong Kiet then
made a peace proposal, which included the ceding of five
frontier districts (now Cao Bang and Lang Son provinces). The
Sung accepted. This was in 1077. Two years later through
negotiations, the Ly recovered the ceded territory.
Ly Thuong Kiet was the architect of the victory. An outstanding
strategist, he was also a great politician who knew how to win
the hearts of the people and inspire his troops with enthusiasm.
The stability of the regime established by the Ly was confirmed
by this brilliant victory over the Chinese imperial armies. The
Tran further strengthened the country's armed voices, enabling
them to repel a Mongol invasion two centuries later.
Buddhism was at its peak under the Ly, whose accession to the
throne had been favored by the Buddhist clergy. In return, the
latter received the highest privileges. The kings themselves
were interested in the study of doctrine and often took bonzes
as advisers. The pagodas owned large domains worked by serfs,
and bonzes were exempt from taxes and military service. Kings
and princes had large numbers of pagodas built and bells cast,
and promoted the dissemination of sacred books. In 1018 King
Thai To sent a mission to China to gather texts of the Tam Tang:
in 1068, King Thai Tong oversaw the creation of the Thao Duong
sect, and several kings became patriarchies of Buddhist sects.
Princes and nobles followed their example. Beautiful pagodas
were built under the Ly, some of them preserved up to the
present day, such as Quan Thanh in Hanoi built in 1102, Dien Huu
(1041), Bao Thien (1050), and Keo Pagoda in Thai Binh Province.
Queen Y Lan, accused of ordering the assassination of one of her
rivals, spent the rest of her life building 100 pagodas to
redeem herself. Vietnamese Buddhist Sects and schools were
founded.
In a society whose members had to unite in the face of great
natural calamities and the permanent danger of foreign invasion,
and who came under the absolute power of a monarch governing
through a complex mandarin bureaucrecy, a doctrine was needed to
direct the mind of each individual towards his social
obligations, obedience and loyalty to the monarch, and
unconditional respect for the social hierarchy. Since the Han,
Chinese imperial dynasties made Confucianism the state doctrine;
the Vietnamese monarchy gradually adopted it.
In 1070, Ly Thanh Tong had the "Temple of Literature" built.
This was a school dedicated to Confucius and his disciples and
was where the sons of high-ranking dignitaries received moral
education and training in administration. In 1075, the first
mandarin competitions took place, through which Confucian
scholars could accede to public office; the competitions were
only open to the sons of aristocratic families. In 1080,
competitions were held to recruit members of an "Academy", whose
task was to preserve the archives and write royal edicts. In
1089, the mandarin hierarchy began to be strictly organized. The
appearance of Confucianism on the scene was the consequence of a
dual phenomenon: on one hand was the necessity of creating a
mandarin bureaucracy and on the other, there was the increasing
accession of educated commoners to public office. At first,
these men were given only subaltern positions, higher offices
being reserved for members of the royal family and of the
aristocracy.
The Ly period also saw the appearance of the first historical
works. Under the Ly Dynasty, Do Thien compiled a history of the
country which, now lost, was mentioned in Viet Dien U Linh and
Linh Nam Chich Quai.
Cheo popular theatre, which first appeared in the 10th century,
continued its development. A prisoner captured during the Mongol
Invasion, Ly Nguyen Cat, made a notable contribution to tuong
Classical theatre.
It was architecture and ceramics that reached a level of
excellence during the Ly period. With the spread of Buddhism,
many pagodas were built. Some of the most famous have been
preserved. Unfortunately, however, the ravages of war and
climate have destroyed the majority of the works of art from
this period. What remains can only give us an idea of what was
achieved at that time. Some works from the Ly period have been
erroneously classified by French historians as being from an
earlier period, that of Dai La (9th century).
On the stele of Linh Xung, erected in 1126, an inscription
records that "wherever there was beautiful scenery a pagodas was
built ". One of the essential characteristics of these pagodas
was harmony with the surrounding landscapes, the building
nestling amidst trees, and the gardens and ponds, an integral
part of the construction; most often, the background was a hill
or winding stream, and the slow ringing of bells in the calm
morning or evening seemed part of nature itself.
Some pagodas had to be of significant size, since they would
accommodate thousands of pilgrims coming to take part in great
celebrations. Dien Huu Pagoda, commonly known as the One-Pillar
Pagoda and built in 1049, is a graceful pavilion built on a
stone pillar standing in the middle of a pond, the whole complex
resembling a lotus flower in bloom.
The lotus flower motif often appears on monuments. The flower
symbolizes beauty and purity, for "though springing from mud it
is free from the stench of mud". Stone pillars, some of
significant size, often rest on "lotus flowers"; the remains of
a pillar in Giam Pagoda, built in 1086, has a base measuring 4.5
metres in diameter and is over 3.5 metres in circumference. At
the foot of some of these pillars are carved stones representing
waves, and the columns seem to emerge from a stormy sea. A
couple of dragons climb the pillar, forming graceful but complex
spirals.
The pagodas have curved roofs and often comprise a tower with as
many as 12 storeys. These pagodas are noted for their
architecture, statues and sculptures.
At Phat Tich Pagoda, the bases of pillars have stone sculptures
representing the bodhi tree (of Buddhist enlightenment) in the
center with two worshippers presenting offerings and behind
them. four musicians dancing and playing various instruments.
The ground is littered with flowers. The atmosphere is joyful
and the gestures graceful, far from Buddhist meditation on the
unreality of this world.
Relic found in the northwestern suburbs of Hanoi, where the
palace of the Ly was located, show it great variety of
sculpture, statues and decorative motifs on ceramics. A frequent
motif is that of the crocodile, with head raised, protruding
eyes looking to the right and to the left, and quivering
nostrils; the body is lithe and the beast standing on its hind
legs seems ready to spring. Stylized lions on ceramics have also
been found.
Excavations in 1965 on the site of the Chuong Son Pagoda built
in 1105 unearthed images of birds with human bodies among other
motifs -chrysanthemums, phoenixes and dragons - all frequently
found on the works of the period. There is a great variety of
products: articles for both daily use and decoration, and
pottery and porcelain ware with fine enamel. Among the most
beautiful enamels are the opalescent-green and brown-grey ones
with a low shine and in various shades. The decoration is varied
- flowers, dragons, lotuses, birds, and where the surface
permits, frescoes and landscapes with human figures. The
drawings and bas-reliefs always have a natural look with
graceful lines and a cheerful environment: the movements of
birds, elephants and dancers, harmonize with flowers in bloom or
contrast with the antics of warriors. Particularly remarkable
are the richly decorated porcelain items. Ceramics were sent as
far as China to be sold or presented to the imperial court.
Under the Ly dynasty this art reached its peak.
Kings of Tran Dynasty: - Tran Thai Tong (1225-1258)
- Tran Dynasty (1225-1400)
- Tran Thanh Tong (1258-1272)
- Tran Nhan Tong (1279-1293)
- Tran Anh Tong (1293-1314)
- Tran Anh Tong (1314-1329)
- Tran Hien Tong (1329-1341)
- Tran Du Tong (1314-1369)
- Tran Nghe Tong (1370-1372)
- Tran Due Tong (1372-1377)
- Tran Phe De (1377-1388)
- Tran Thuan Tong (1388-1398)
- Tran Thieu De (1398-1400)
The Tran, who succeeded the Ly in 1225, continued this work of
unification and nation-building until the end of the 14th
century. During this 400-year period the country experienced
vigorous development in many fields.
Appanages and domains greatly increased in number under the
Tran, when nobles and dignitaries endeavoured to reclaim new
lands, then taking possession of them. Some used their power to
seize land belonging to villages and individuals. On these
appanages and domains, the peasants were in reality serfs, while
the lords kept a large number of domestic slaves. The Ly had
forbidden the traffic of young men to be used as slaves, but the
order was rescinded under the Tran.
The slaves comprised former criminals, insolvent debtors, and
prisoners of war. During periods of famine, children were sold
by their parents as slaves. Some lords owned thousands of serfs
and slaves. These could not own property or gain access to
public positions. Under the Tran in particular, the nobles had
their own armed forces.
Buddhist monasteries also constituted large domains with serfs
and slaves.
The great societal movement for the liberation of these serfs
and slaves was to shake the regime to its foundations.
The larger part of the land, however, belonged to the villages,
which paid rent and taxes to the royal administration. The
village population was periodically required to provide labour
for the construction of roads, dykes and canals, and to do
military service. Communal land was periodically distributed
among the villagers, under the direction of notables, naturally
in a manner profitable to the notables.
Land appropriation by individuals became increasingly frequent
under the Le; as early as the 11th century, the Ly had to
promulgate legislation on the sale and purchase of land. A class
of peasant-owners thus appeared to challenge the lords with
their larger domains.
On several occasions, the Tran had dykes repaired and canals
dredged. In 1382, they ordered the digging of several canals in
Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces, and in 1390 the Thien Duc
Canal, now the Song Duong. Dykes were built along the Red, Thai
Binh, Ma and Chu rivers, and every year, following the harvest,
the mandarins responsible inspected the dykes and directed
maintenance and repair work. In August 1315, when the waters
rose to a dangerous level, King Tran Minh Tong personally
directed the work. A mandarin advised him against such work,
saying that "it becomes a king to show great virtue, not to
devote himself to small things"; but another dignitary retorted,
"When the country is threatened by a major flood or severe
drought, it is a king's duty to directly take part in carrying
out the necessary measures. This is the best way to show great
Virtue".
Dykes were also built along the coast so as to bring new land
formed by silt accumulating at the mouths of rivers into
production.
With administrative centralization, internal peace and the
safeguarding of national independence, agriculture, the
cornerstone of the economy, was able to develop further.
Historical records note few severe famines. The kings sometimes
decreed a reduction in taxes to encourage the peasants.
Handicrafts also saw rapid development. Cotton, silk and brocade
weaving reached a high level. Multi-coloured brocades were
exported or presented to the Chinese imperial court. The
development of silver, gold, tin and lead mining gave birth to
numerous metal-working trades and jewelry-making. The state
minted copper coins and set up workshops for the manufacture of
weapons, religious objects and court attire. Bronze smelting,
for the making of bells in particular, and pottery with
high-quality enamels made great progress. The bricks, tiles, and
ceramic statues made in the Le period were famous.
Printing from engraved wooden plates contributed to the
development of education and the dissemination of Buddhist
literature.
The development of handicrafts led the Tran kings to divide the
capital into districts, each of which specialized in a
particular trade. In the 13th century, the capital had 61
districts, each of which was occupied by a guild.
The growing shipbuilding industry was able to produce large
junks with as many as one hundred oars. The capital Thang Long
became the country's great commercial centre, and markets were
established in many places. A Mongolian ambassador who visited
the country in the 13th century wrote that village markets were
held twice a month, with "plenty of goods", and on the highways
a market was situated every five miles. There were also inns
established by the authorities where travelers could rest.
Trading between the delta and mountainous regions flourished.
The plains exchanging salt and iron tools for forest products.
Trade with China was effected at special places near the
frontier or the ports. In exchange for fabrics, the Chinese
obtained essential bibs, ivory, salt and other minerals. The
silk trade was subject to rigorous regulation by the state,
which itself sometimes engaged in commercial operations.
Japanese and Siamese vessels came to the port of Van Don to buy
Vietnamese goods.
In 1280, King Tran Nhan Ton instituted a uniform unit of
measurement for wood and textiles.
Commerce thus began to develop, but merchants were not held in
high esteem, and external trade was tightly controlled by the
state. In 1242, a village administrative apparatus was
instituted by the Tran. Up to that time, the royal
administration had covered only province and district levels.
The monarchy gave special attention to the building of a
powerful army. Serfs were not recruited into the army, and
positions of command were reserved for members of aristocratic
families, with the highest posts reserved for members of the
royal family. There was a special guard for the protection of
the king and the royal palace. Military service was extended to
cover the whole population except serfs. Conscripts underwent a
period of training, then returned to their villages to continue
their work in the fields. This peasant-soldier policy made the
mobilization of large forces possible whenever necessary.
Training was undertaken regularly and, according to a Chinese
ambassador of the time, was of a high level. Under the Tran, the
princes and lords who owned large domains had their own armies
made up of serfs and slaves. The sons of prominent families were
trained in the art of war in a military school. Tran Hung Dao,
who defeated the Mongols, wrote a handbook on military tactics
for the use of his officers.
Glorious Resistance against the Mongols
At the beginning of the 13th century, Gengis Khan, having
unified Mongolia, started a war of conquest against China. In
1253, Kubilai conquered the Dai Ly kingdom (now Yunnan
Province), thus reaching the Vietnamese frontier. The Mongols
demanded passage through Dai Viet in order to attack the Sung
from the south (1257), but the Tran refused. A Mongol army
invaded Dai Viet, smashed its defences, and seized the capital
Thang Long, which was put to the sword and burnt to the ground.
The King Tran left the capital, which was also abandoned by its
inhabitants. The Mongol army were not able to obtain food and
fared badly in the tropical climate. A Vietnamese
counter-offensive drove the Mongols out of the capital. In
retreat, the enemy was attacked by local partisans from an
ethnic minority group living in the Phu Tho region.
This was the first Mongol defeat.
Once they had become the overlords of China, the Mongols grew
more and more demanding towards Dai Viet. Despite concession, by
the Tran, the Mongol court remained intransigent, dreaming of
conquering both Dai Viet and Champa. Relations between the two
countries remained tense, and Mongols envoys behaved with
arrogance at the Tran court. The Tran were not inactive, but
rather made serious preparations for the country's defence.
In 1281, Tran Di Ai, a member of the royal family, was sent as
an envoy to China. The Mongols persuaded him to accept his
investiture by them as king of Dai Viet. He returned to the
country with an escort of 1,000 soldiers to ascend the throne.
However, the Mongol escort was beaten and he was captured.
In the meantime, the Mongols had completed preparations for an
expedition by sea against Champa. At the end of 1282, a Mongol
general, Toa Do (Gogetu), landed in Champa and seized its
capital in 1281. But Cham resistance decimated the Mongol army.
In 1284, Toa Do began withdrawing his troops, regrouping them in
the northern part of Champa near the Vietnamese frontier, and
awaiting further developments.
Kuhilai had been making preparations for a powerful expedition
against Dai Viet and Champa; under the command of his son Thoat
Hoan (Toghan), 500,000 cavalrymen and infantrymen were to rush
southward to push the frontiers of the Mongol empire to the
southernmost part of the Indochina peninsula.
King Tran Nhan Tong was aware of the enemy's strategy. As early
as 1282, he had assembled and consulted all the princes and
high-ranking dignitaries on the action to be taken; their
unanimous response was to fight. Tran Quoc Toan, only 16 years
old, recruited a guard of 1,000 men to go to the front. At the
close of 1283, all the princes and dignitaries were ordered to
put their troops under the supreme command of Tran Hung Dao. A
congress of village elders from all over the country was
convened and the following question put to them: "Should we
capitulate or fight?" A great cry rose from the assembly:
"Fight!"
The Mongols demanded that their troops be allowed to pass
through Dai Viet territory for the invasion of Champa. At the
close of 1284, they crossed the frontier. The Vietnamese force,
totaling a mere 200,000 men, was unable to withstand the first
onslaught. Tran Hung Dao ordered the evacuation of the capital
and was asked by the king: "The enemy is so strong that a
protracted War might bring terrible destruction down upon the
people. Wouldn't it be better to lay down our arms to save the
population?" The general answered: "I understand Your Majesty's
humane feelings perfectly, but what would become of our
ancestors' land, of our forefathers' temples? If you want to
surrender, please have my head cut off first". The king was
rcassurcd. Hung Dao wrote a handbook on military strategy for
his officers' use and issued a famous appeal which so inspired
his men that they all had "Death to the Mongols!" tattooed on
their arms. In the villages placards were put up enjoining the
population to resist the invader by every possible means and, if
necessary, to take refuge in the forests and mountains and
continue the struggle.
In early 1285, the Mongols captured several posts, crossed the
Red River and entered Thang Long. The capital was ransacked and
its inhabitants massacred. General Tran Binh Trong was taken
prisoner. When the enemy tried to win him over he said: "I would
rather be a ghost in the south than a prince in the north", and
was subsequently executed. The Mongol general Toa Do left Champa
to join up with the army led by his colleague O Ma Nhi (Omar). A
Vietnamese army under the command of Tran Quang Khai was beaten
off when it tried to block his way in Nghe An Province. The
Mongol fleet was sailing up the Red River. Many princes and
nobles, among them LeTac and Tran Ich Tac, betrayed their
country. The Tran court had to take refuge in Thanh Hoa
Province. The Mongols controlled the greater part of the Red
River Delta and Thanh Hoa and Nghe An provinces, i.e. the
majority of the country's territory.
However, in the process the Mongols were forced to distribute
their forces among a multitude of vulnerable posts and patrols
whose task was to keep communications open. In the first months
of 1285, local chiefs in the uplands inficted losses on the
Mongols, while in the delta the population, leaving a vacuum
before the enemy, denied them all access to supplies and put
them in a most difficult position. The determination of the Tran
command was thus able to be brought into full play.
From Nghe An Province, Toa Do's troops, harassed by guerrillas,
tried to move up the Red River and join the Mongol army
stationed farther north. The Trap sent 50,000 men to intercept
them, and the Mongols suffered an overwhelming defeat at Ham Tu
(Hung Yen Province). Fired up by this victory, Tran Hung Dao's
troops dashed towards the capital. Chuong Duong, an outpost 20
km south of Thang Long, was taken. And when the King Tran with
his troops left their Thanh Hoa refuge to advance toward the
capital, the population rose up, harassing the rearguard of the
Mongol armies. Enemy troops evacuated Thang Long and withdrew
north of the Red River. The bulk of the Vietnamese forces threw
themselves into battle against Toa Do's army, which was crushed
at Tay Ket in July 1285; the Mongol general was killed and
50,000 of his men captured.
After posting troops along the route taken by the enemy as they
retreated towards China, Hung Dao staged a frontal attack on the
Mongol army. As the latter drew back, it fell into ambushes.
Thoat Hoan, the Mongol commander-in-chief, escaped by hiding in
a bronze cask. By August 1285, the whole country had been
liberated, and the Mongol army of half a million strong
defeated.
Kubilai was forced to abandon plans for an invasion of Japan in
order to make preparations for a revenge expedition against Dai
Viet. As the Tran princes sought to recruit new troops, General
Tran Hung Dao said to them: "The strength of an army lies in its
quality, not numbers". And to the anxious king he said, "Our
troops are now better trained, while the enemy, having suffered
a defeat, has lost morale. Victory will be easier".
In late 1287, Thoat Hoan again crossed the frontier with 300,000
men while a Mongol fleet of 500 vessels headed for the
Vietnamese coast. The King Tran again left the capital. The
Mongol general O Ma Nhi sent him this warning: "Even if you fled
to the sky I'd go after you. I'd pursue you to the bottom of the
seas, to the heart of the forests, if necessary!" The Mongols
sought to occupy more and more territory, but found only
deserted areas around them. The Yuan (name of the Mongol
dynasty) annals relate: "The Chiao Chih (Dai Viet) population
hid their rice and fled". The invading army ran short of
supplies. Thoat Hoan ordered the capital set on fire, then
withdrew north of the Red River; during that time, his troops
were constantly harassed by the Tran army and the population.
At Van Don on the coast (near present-day Halong), General Tran
Khanh Du kept a close watch on Mongol supply convoys. He caught
the enemy fleet unawares, destroyed it and seized the cargoes of
food. The enemy was greatly demoralized on hearing the news. The
Mongols pillaged the countryside, but the population put up a
heroic resistance. Thoat Hoan was told by his generals: "We have
no more citadels left, no more food; the strategic passes have
been lost, and summer will soon come with its retinue of
diseases. We'd better withdraw". The Mongol retreat was effected
by land through Lang Son and by sea, the fleet sailing down the
Bach Dang River.
Tran Hung Dao used Ngo Quyen's old stratagem, iron-tipped stakes
planted at the mouth of the river. General Pham Ngu Lao was sent
to Lang Son to guard the mountain passes. Tran Hung Dao himself
took the bulk of the troops across the Hoa River (Kien An
Province) and launched a big offensive. When crossing the river,
Hung Dao publicly swore the following oath: "If the Mongols are
not defeated, we will not recross this river".
At high tide, the Mongol fleet sailing down the Bach Dang was
engaged by a small Vietnamese fleet which soon retreated. O Ma
Nhi's forces were pursuing it when Tran Hung Dao's army turned
up. The Mongol fleet beat a hasty retreat, but by this time the
tide was ebbing and the Mongol junks broke up on the iron-tipped
stakes. O Ma Nhi was taken prisoner and 100 of his junks were
destroyed and another 400 captured (April 3, 1288).
Thoat Hoan was terrified on learning the news, and hurriedly
withdrew. His troops were decimated during their retreat, the
third Mongol defeat. In late 1288, the King Tran wisely sent a
mission to China to negotiate, offering tribute to the Mongol
court. In 1289, he handed over the captured Mongol generals and
officers. The Chinese court wanted more than this formal
recognition of suzerainty but its demands were not accepted. In
1293, the Mongols began organizing another expedition but
Kubilai died in 1294 and his son Timour abandoned the project.
The new ruler established friendly relations with Dai Viet,
which continued to pay tribute annually to the Mongol court.
The principal reason for the victory over the Mongols was the
strength of the socioeconomic system established under the Ly
and Tran, and the successful military policy followed by the
Tran command. The monarchy and nobles had promoted the
development of agriculture and instituted a peasant-soldier
system so that when a war occurred, the whole nation united
around its chiefs, each man becoming a combatant. Ethnic
minority chieftains in mountainous regions also contributed to
victory. National unity became a reality. National
consciousness, moulded over the course of many centuries of
struggle against foreign aggressors and consolidated by the
establishment of stable centralized power had been considerably
strengthened. General Tran Hung Dao never failed to seek the
support of the population in his fight against an enemy superior
in numbers and armaments, and he used appropriate strategies and
tactics. He willingly left towns, and even the capital where
necessary, avoided combat when the enemy was too strong,
resorted to guerrilla harassment, and resolutely took the
offensive whenever the circumstances were favorable. The fierce
determination of his command galvanized the men.
On a visit to Tran Hung Dao shortly before died in 1300, King
Tran Anh Tong asked him, "What should we do in the event of a
new invasion from the north?" Hung Dao replied, "The enemy
relies on numbers. To oppose the long with the short - therein
lies our skill. If the enemy makes a violent rush forward, like
fire and tempest, it is easy to defeat him. But if he shows
patience, like the silkworm nibbling at the mulberry leaf, if he
proceeds without haste, refrains from pillaging, and does not
seek a quick victory, then we must choose the best generals and
effective tactics, as in a chess game, the army must be united
and of one mind, like father and son. It is essential to treat
the people with humanity, so as to strike deep roots and ensure
a lasting base". Ever since then, the memory of Tran Hung Dao
has been honored at the Kiep Bac Temple.
After his victory over the Mongols, King Tran Nhan Tong gave up
the throne in 1293, retired to the monastery and together with
two other bonzes founded the Truc Lam (Bamboo Forest) sect. A
doctrinal work from the Tran period, the Khoa Hit Litc, has been
preserved with the following lines:
Nothing, is born,
Nothing dies.
When this has been understood
The Buddha appears,
The round of avatars ends.
King Tran Thai Tong, who reigned from 1225 to 1258, described in
tile foreword to a doctrinal work how he had sought the monastic
life:
"Ever since the king, my father, handed over the kingdom to me,
then only a child, I have never been free from care. I told
myself: 'My Parents are no long here to give me advice; it will
be very difficult for me to win the people's confidence. What
should I do?' After thinking deeply, I came to the conclusion
that to retire into the mountains, to seek the Buddha's
teachings in order to know the reasons for life and death and to
pay homage to my parents would be the best way. I decided to
leave. On the third day of the fourth month of the fifth Year of
Thien Ung's reign, I dressed as a commoner and left the palace.
To the guards I said,' I want to mix with the people, learn
about their hardships, and know their thoughts'. Seven or eight
men followed me; when the hoi hour had passed, I crossed the
river then told the truth to the guards, who burst into tears.
The next day, while passing the Pha Lai Ferry, I hid my face in
order not to be recognized. We spent the night at Gia Chanh
Pagoda. The next day, we went straight to the top of the
mountain on which the Great Master Truc Lam resided. Overjoyed,
the Great Master greeted me with these words:
'The old bonze that I am, who has retired into the midst of
forest, whose body is nothing but skin and bone, who lives on
wild herbs and berries, drinks from the stream and wanders among
the trees, has a heart as light as the clouds and unburdened
like the wind. Your Majesty has left Your sumptuous palace to
come to this remote place. May I ask you what compelling need
has prompted you to make this journey? With tears in my eyes, I
replied:
'I am very young, my parents are no longer in this world and
here I am, alone, reigning over the people, without any support.
I think that thrones have always been fragile and so I have come
to these mountains with my only desire that of becoming, a
Buddha.' The Great Master replied, 'No, the Buddha is not to be
found in these mountains, he is in our hearts. When the heart is
at peace and lucid the Buddha is there. If Your Majesty has an
enlightened hear, you immediately become the Buddha; why then
seek else where?
(The Court came to beseech the king, to return and the prime
minister threatened to commit suicide if the king refused).
"The Great Master took my hand and said, ' Since you are king,
the will of the kingdom must also be your will, the heart of the
kingdom must also be your heart. The whole kingdom is now asking
you to return, how can you refuse? There is however one
important thing you should not forget when you are back in your
palace: studying the sacred books'. I returned to the palace,
and against my will, remained on the throne for several decades.
In my leisure time I would gather together eminent old men for
the study of the Thien doctrine (Dhyana) and of the sacred
books, none of which was omitted. When studying the Diamond
sutra, I often stopped at the sentence: ' Never let your heart
cling to any fixed thing'. I would then close the book, and
remain along time in meditation. Enlightenment came to me and I
composed the initiation to the Thien…"
It would be naďve to think that during this period Buddhism
confined itself to these purely spiritual exercises. It was the
state religion with all its pomp and vigour; it provided people
with spiritual consolation, the ruling class with divine
prestige, and some minds with a means of escape; it was imbued
with superstition in many of its manifestations and with Taoism
in its doctrine. It left a lasting imprint on the Vietnamese
soul. However, as the monarchical order was gradually
consolidated, the social hierarchy became increasingly complex,
and the royal administration extended its power to the detriment
of the aristocracy. Buddhism was no longer enough.
Confucian culture grew in importance under the Tran: the
competitions were better codified and held more regularly. The
title of "doctor" was bestowed, enhancing the prestige of
Confucian literature. Institutes were created in the capital for
the study of Confucian literature, subjects in the competitions
comprised in particular the composition of poems, royal
ordinances and proclamations, and essays on classical
literature. As well as public schools, private schools also
appeared under the direction of famous people, the most
prominent of these being Chu Van An. In the field of culture,
Buddhist bonzes were increasingly eclipsed by Confucian
scholars; in 1243, the title of doctor was awarded to Le Van Huu,
who was to become Vietnam's first great historian.
Confucian scholars monopolized more and more positions in public
life, displacing Buddhist bonzes and nobles of military origin,
who were often uneducated. In the 13th century, the ideological
struggle between Buddhism and Confucianism became increasingly
acute, a struggle which reflected the antagonism facing the
nobles, owners of great domains, from the fast-growing class of
peasant owners of lowly origin. The great domains were also
shaken by revolts among serfs and domestic slaves at the close
of the 13th century. Thus, divisions appeared between the
aristocracy and Buddhist clergy on one side, and on the other
side, the class of peasant-owners allied with the serfs and
slaves with Confucian scholars as their spokesmen in the field
of ideology.
"In face of Buddhism which affirmed the vanity, even the
unreality of this world, preached renunciation, and directed
men's minds towards other worldly aspirations, Confucianism
taught that man is essentially a social being bound by social
obligations. To serve one's king, honour one's parents, remain
loyal to one's spouse until death, manage one's family affairs,
participate in the administration of one's country, contribute
to safeguarding the peace of the world - such were the duties
prescribed by Confucianism for all. To educate oneself, to
improve oneself so as to be able to assume all these tasks, this
should be the fundamental preoccupation of all men, from the
Emperor, Son of Heaven, down to the humblest commoner.
The scholars directed their attacks not only agaisnt Buddhist
beliefs, but also against the place granted to them by the State
and society. The historian Le Van Huu wrote:
"The first King Ly , hardly two years after his accession to the
throne, at a time when the ancestral temples of the dynasty had
not yet been consolidated, had already had eight pagodas built
in Thien Duc district, and many others restored in different
provinces; he kept more than a thousand bonzes in the capital;
much wealth and labour had thus been wasted! These riches had
not fallen from the sky, this labour had not been supplied by
the gods; to do such things was to drain the blood and sweat of
the people."
The scholar Le Quat lamented:
"To implore the Buddha's blessing, to dread his malediction- how
had such beliefs become so deeply rooted in the hearts of men ?
Princes of the blood and common people alike squandered their
possessions in venerating the Buddha, quite happy to give them
away to pagodas, as if they had been given a guarantee for life
in the other world. Wherever there was a house, one was sure to
find a pagoda next to it; a crumbling pagoda was soon replaced
by a new one; bells, pagodas, drums, towers - half the
population were engaged in making these things."
Truong Han Sieu also made a direct attack on the bonzes:
"Scoundrels who lost all notion of Buddhist asceticism only
thought of taking possession of beautiful monasteries and
gardens, building for themselves luxurious residences, and
surrounding themselves with a host of servants… People became
monks by the thousand so as to get food without having to plough
and clothes without having to weave. They deceived the people,
undermined morality, squandered riches, were found everywhere,
followed by numerous believers, very few of them were not real
bandits."
But several centuries were to pass before Buddhism was
eliminated from the scene, at least from public office, and
Confucianism could stand alone. Competitions in the three
doctrines (Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism) still took place
under the Kings Tran. No war of religion ever broke out in
Vietnam. By the 14th century, however, Confucianism had risen to
pre-eminence.
The Birth of a National Literature
With the recovering independence, a national literature took
shape and gradually developed. Popular and oral literature in
the national language became ever richer, but it is difficult to
date most of the works, songs and stories handed down from
generation to generation. In the l0th century, a scholarly
literature appeared in classical Chinese, the common language of
the culture of the Far East, using Chinese characters. However,
more and more a need for the development of a script for the
Vietnamese language was felt; the nom script, derived from
Chinese, was thus created. The exact date of its creation is not
known, but the first works written in nom appeared in the 14th
century.
The first works in classical Chinese were mostly Buddhist texts
expounding the doctrine or expressing the bonzes' reactions to
certain events, for example a poem by the bonze Van Hanh, who
died in 1018:
Mail is a shadow, gone as soon as born,
The trees, so green in spring, are bare in autumn.
Greatness and decline, why, should we care?
The destiny of men and empires is like a dew-drop on a grass
leaf.
The bonze Vien Chieu (98-1090) was also it poet who wrote:
Escorted by the wind, the sound of the horn slips through the
bamboo grove,
With the moon rising behind, the shadows of mountains climb the
ramparts.
With the consolidation of the kingdom, Buddhist inspiration on
the evanescence of things gave way to the contemplation of
nature; then with the struggle for national independence,
patriotism prevailed in the writings. The same men who in peace
time sang of the beauty of the land took up their pens at
critical moments to exalt the nation's struggle.
King Tran Nhan Tong, the victor over the Mongols left this
twilight landscape:
Villages grow dim in the mist,
They now vanish, now reappear in the sunset.
Buffalo-herds blowing their horns take their cattle home,
A flock of white egrets swoop down oil the fields.
When the country was invaded by the Mongols, General Tran Hung
Dao, wrote a proclamation to the army which is one of the jewels
in the treasury of our national literature:
I can neither eat nor sleep, my heart aches, and tears trickle
down from my eyes; I am enraged at being unable yet to tear the
enemy to pieces, pluck out his liver, taste his blood. But you
are neither disturbed nor ashamed by the humiliation suffered by
your king and your fatherland. You who are officers and generals
of our royal army, how can you serve the enemy without feeling
hatred? How can you listen to the music greeting enemy envoys
without choking with anger? You spend your time watching cock
fights, gambling, tending your gardens, looking after your wives
and children. You are busy making money and forget about state
affairs. The pleasures of hunting prevail in your minds over
your military preoccupations. You are absorbed in wine and song.
If the country were invaded by the Mongols, your cock's spurs
would not be able to pierce their armour, your gambling tricks
could not replace military strategy. You may possess immense
gardens and fields but even a thousand taels of gold could not
redeem your lives. Your wives and children would only encumber
you; all the gold in the world could not buy the enemy's head,
Your hunting dogs could not drive him away, your wine could not
intoxicate him to death, sweet songs could not seduce him. Then
both You and I would be in the enemy's clutches. Not only could
I no longer enjoy my appanages, but you too would lose all your
privileges; not only would my family be broken up, woe would
also befall your wives and children; both royal ancestral
temples and your own ancestors' graves would be trampled upon;
dishonour would stain both my name and yours, not only during
our lifetime, but for centuries to come. Would you then persist
in pleasure-seeking?"
Among the author who left great literary works were Mac Dinh Chi
(died in 1346), Truong Han Sieu (died in 1354), Chu Van An (died
in 1370), Nguyen Trung Ngan (1289-1370), Pham Su Manh who in
1345 led a mission to China, and Le Quat. Truong Han Sieu
glorified the two victories won in 939 and 1288 on the Bach Dang
River, in a famous poem ending with these verses:
The enemy has fled, peace is restored for centuries to come,
Terrain played no role, noble virtues were decisive.
Of this period two works of religious tendency remain: Viet Dien
U Linh, a collection of texts on genii, divinities, and deified
famous men, which was attributed to Ly Te Xuyen, and Thien Uyen
Tap Anh, a collection of texts and biographies of bonzes up to
the Tran Dynasty.
Literature in nom appeared in the l4th century with Nguyen
Thuyen and Nguyen Si Co whose works, though mentioned in the
annals, have not survived. Tradition has it that when King Tran
Nhan Tong married Princess Huyen Tran to the king of Champa in
exchange for the O and Ly districts, this act was severely
criticized in satirical poems written in nom. The appearance of
poems in nom was an important landmark in the development of a
national literature. By the end of the 13th century, Ho Quy Ly
had translated the Kinh Thi (Book of Poems), a Confucian
classic, into nom.
An annals department was created under the Tran. Tran Tan wrote
Viet Chi, a monograph which the great historian Le Van Huu often
referred to in 1272 when he compiled the Dai Viet Su Ky (History
of Dai Viet) in 30 chapters covering the period from Trieu Da to
the end of the Ly dynasty. Le Van Huu's work was also lost, but
it was the major inspiration for the complete history of Dai
Viet written later by Ngo Si Lien. At the close of the Tran
Dynasty, the Dai Viet Su Luoc (Short History) was written by an
anonymous author. This book was to be reprinted in China in the
18th century. It is reported in the annals that Ho Ton Thoc
wrote two historical chronicles, the Viet Su Cuong Muc and Nam
Viet The Chi. Both these works have been lost. Under the Tran,
chronicles were also written describing military exploits in the
wars against the Mongols and the kingdom of Ai Lao. Le Tac, who
had taken refuge in China, wrote the An Nam Chi Luoc at the
beginning of the 14th century.
According to the An Nam Chi Luoc, in Tran times "people played
small cylindrical drum, introduced from Champa, which had a
clear, pure sound. This drum was used in the great music play
only for the king; even princes and dignitaries were not allowed
to play great music, except at ceremonies. Guitars - cam, tranh,
ti ba with seven or two strings, and flutes of various kinds
could be used by all nobles or commoners, Countless pieces were
played".
The art of the Tran period continued that of the Ly Palaces and
royal mausoleums continued to be built. Pho Minh Tower, built in
1305, is 14 stories high with the lowest two levels made of
stone and the rest of brick. The base was shaped like a gigantic
lotus flower emerging from the water. The Binh Son tower still
stands to this day, leaning slightly with its remaining 12
storeys totalling 15 metres in height. The whole construction is
of terra-cotta and the surfaces arc richly decorated with lotus
and other flowers, dragons, lions, and leaves of the bo tree.
The dragons have lost their "natural" look and the S-shaped
decoration on their heads. Remarkable wood carvings have
survived from the Tran period. This art form appeared during a
much earlier period, but the works have suffered badly from the
ravages of climate and insects. Wood carving also used all the
above-mentioned motifs and themes.
Among the great monuments from the Tran period are the Tay Do
citadel, built by Ho Quy Ly in Thanh Hoa Province in 1397, and
which served as a capital for a short time. Rectangular in
shape, 900 meters long and 700 metres wide, with 6 metre-high
ramparts, it was built of large stone blocks, some of them 6
metres long, 1.7 metres wide and 1.2 metres high and weighing 16
tons. Of the ancient palaces, only a few traces have
survived,such as stone dragons decorating flights of steps. The
arched porticoes were built from huge stone blocks.
Architecture had thus reached a high level. Among other forms of
technology was the casting of cannon. Ho Nguyen Trung, taken
prisoner by the Ming, was entrusted by the Chinese emperor to
make cannons for the Chinese army. Astronomy also developed to
some extent. It is recorded in the annals that the mandarin Dang
Lo, in charge of astrology under the Tran, invented an
instrument used to observe celestial phenomena.
During the reign of Tran Due Tong (1341-1369), lived the famous
physician Tue Tinh who made a special study of the healing
properties of local plants and herbs. In 1352, he was invited to
China to attend the Chinese empress. He left several medical
treatises, the most famous of which is the Nam Duoc Than Hieu
(About the Marvelous Effects of National Medicines). |
